Traveling While Black

Ask just about any Black person in America and they will be familiar with the phrase "traveling while Black." These three words encapsulate the experiences and challenges encountered by Black people during their travels in America, particularly in predominantly white or racially hostile environments. It sheds light on the historical racial profiling, discrimination, and systemic biases that generations of Black folks have faced on their journeys across the American landscape.

Even after emancipation and the introduction of civil rights legislation in the late 19th century, white Americans, especially in former Confederate states, aimed to maintain their privileged social position by subjugating Black Americans in various aspects of life, including housing, education, healthcare, employment, and public transportation. Consequently, Black American travelers endured scrutiny, harassment, & unwarranted suspicion solely based on their race.

Just after Emancipation and before the widespread use of automobiles, African Americans faced significant challenges while traveling due to racial segregation and discrimination that persisted during the Jim Crow era in the United States. Despite being legally free, Black individuals encountered various obstacles and dangers during their journeys.

The roots of traveling while black can be traced back to the implementation of segregation laws known as “Jim Crow laws.” These laws enforced racial separation, including in public spaces such as transportation. African Americans were subjected to separate and inferior accommodations, facing discrimination and mistreatment in trains, buses, and waiting areas. The segregated facilities were often poorly maintained and lacked basic amenities, highlighting the institutionalized racism embedded in travel.

Black travelers faced numerous challenges during this era. They encountered frequent harassment and violence from white supremacists and vigilante groups, making their journeys fraught with danger. Lynchings and other acts of racial violence were prevalent, creating an atmosphere of fear. Moreover, African Americans experienced racial profiling, arbitrary stops, searches, and interrogations by law enforcement solely based on their race. These discriminatory practices aimed to subjugate and control black individuals, perpetuating the cycle of racism.

During the era of the highway system and interstate travel, legally enforced segregation expanded its reach to include various businesses associated with motor vehicles. African Americans faced immense challenges and dangers while traveling, as motels, restaurants, gas stations, and even parking lots were subjected to discriminatory practices. In response to this subjugation, intentional resistance emerged within the Black community.

During the era of segregation, traveling by car posed significant challenges and dangers for African Americans due to discriminatory laws and practices. Along the nation's highways, black travelers were systematically denied access to essential services such as gas stations, restaurants, restrooms, and accommodations. Stopping in an unfamiliar place carried the constant risk of humiliation, threats, or even more severe consequences. To navigate this hostile landscape and find safe and welcoming establishments, travelers relied on a network of shared advice, often communicated through word of mouth and documented in travel guides like the "Green Book."

In addition to the hardships faced on the road, African Americans encountered discriminatory treatment in major stores. They were prohibited from trying on clothing before purchasing it, as store owners would use racist justifications, including claims that black individuals were not sufficiently clean. At its core, this practice stemmed from the irrational belief that anything touched by African-American skin, whether it be clothing, silverware, or bed linens, was somehow contaminated by blackness, rendering it unsuitable for use by white individuals.

These discriminatory practices had deadly consequences in areas where emergency medical services were assigned based on race. Medical racism was perhaps the most lethal affliction of the Jim Crow era. African-American accident victims could be left to die simply because no "black" ambulance was available to attend to them. Black patients taken to segregated hospitals often endured subpar treatment, with some being relegated to basements or even boiler rooms.

A notable incident in 1931 exemplifies the tragic consequences of medical racism. The father of Walter White, a leader of the N.A.A.C.P., was a light-skinned man who was struck by a car. Mistakenly admitted to the well-equipped "white" wing of Grady Memorial Hospital in Atlanta, he was abruptly dragged from the examination table to the decrepit Negro ward across the street when relatives who were visibly black came looking for him. Unfortunately, he later succumbed to his injuries in the inferior facility. That same year, Juliette Derricotte, a celebrated African-American educator and dean of women at Fisk University, tragically died from injuries sustained in a car accident near Dalton, Georgia, after being denied treatment at a white hospital.

In the earlier years of the Great Migration, most individuals departed from the South via train. Families along the East Coast would take the Atlantic Coast train to Richmond and then transfer to different rail lines heading further north. Those based in Mississippi would board the Illinois Central, traveling north to Memphis and onward to cities like St. Louis and Chicago. Passengers from Louisiana and Texas could take the Southern Pacific Railroad westward to California.

However, Black passengers leaving the South in the early 1900s were forced to endure segregated train cars, typically the oldest and most dangerous in the event of a crash. These Jim Crow cars also served as shared spaces for White passengers to smoke and for law enforcement to transport prisoners, often housing luggage from other cars.

Some Black Americans turned to automobile travel as a means to escape the deplorable conditions of segregated train cars labeled "colored-only." Yet, they soon discovered that the geography of Jim Crow extended far beyond their expectations. Motels and rest stops denied them places to sleep, and filling stations that sold them gas prohibited them from using "whites only" bathrooms. White motorists, driven by racial animosity, would intentionally damage expensive cars driven by Black individuals in an attempt to exert dominance. The prevalence of "Sundown Towns" across the country further reinforced the vast influence of white supremacy, as African Americans were forbidden from being on the streets after dark.

Moreover, the constant fear of racial profiling persisted, as police officers would often pull over motorists of color under the pretext of "driving while black." Such encounters posed the threat of arrest, physical assault, or even death for Black passengers. Unfortunately, these concerns still persist today.  In response to these subjugations, intentional resistance emerged. African Americans relied on networks of safe spaces and support systems, with guidebooks like “The Negro Motorist Green Book” playing a crucial role.

In 1936, a Harlem resident and postal worker named Victor Hugo Green started collecting information for a travel guide that would help black motorists navigate the challenges of segregation. This guide, known as the Negro Motorist Green Book, became an essential resource for African American travelers in the 1950s and early 1960s.

During the Jim Crow era, when racial segregation was enforced, the Green Book provided a list of establishments such as hotels, restaurants, and service stations that welcomed African American patrons. It aimed to ensure their safety and fair treatment. The term "Jim Crow" originated from a character in a minstrel show and symbolized a century of legal discrimination against African Americans.

Published from 1936 to 1966, the Green Book listed various accommodations and services available to African Americans throughout the country. Victor H. Green, a New Jersey Postal Worker, created the guide using input from postal contacts, traveling salespeople, and business owners. The Standard Oil Company partnered with Green to distribute the book at their Esso gas stations.

Green, a somewhat enigmatic figure, communicated with his readers through testimonial letters, maintaining a promotional and ventriloquistic approach. The initial editions of the Green Book did not advocate for boycotts or equal rights. Instead, it presented itself as a factual and reliable source of information for black motorists.

The deliberate language used in the Green Book attracted corporate and government sponsors while keeping white readers comfortable. However, Green also employed coded messages that resonated with black readers, emphasizing the guide's significance in protecting against racism while planning trips.

Furthermore, the Green Book challenged the stereotypes of African Americans prevalent in mainstream media. Its cover featured an image of a well-dressed, smiling couple carrying expensive suitcases, which aimed to expose white Americans to the black elite and promote the idea that black consumer spending could influence racial discrimination.

As racial barriers began to fall and the Civil Rights Act of 1964 outlawed racial discrimination in public accommodations, the influence of the Green Book diminished. It ceased publication, marking the end of an era. However, the guide's three decades of listings provide valuable insights into black business ownership and travel mobility during the Jim Crow era.  Victor Hugo Green passed away in 1960, but his legacy has experienced a resurgence of interest, particularly due to the 2018 film "Green Book," which won three Golden Globe awards.

Guidebooks like The Negro Green Book provided information about establishments that welcomed black travelers, allowing them to navigate the challenges and find hospitable accommodations. Traveling became an opportunity for community-building, activism, and the promotion of social and political change. African Americans organized campaigns against discrimination and fought for equal rights in transportation and public spaces.

The history of segregated transportation in the American South played a central role in the Civil Rights Movement. Figures like Rosa Parks refused to accept second-class treatment on public transportation, sparking a wave of resistance. The Freedom Riders of the 1960s also challenged segregated private bus systems, enduring harassment, imprisonment, and violence as a result. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 focused on desegregating these transportation systems and the associated businesses.

While this legislation had a significant impact on American society, it's crucial to recognize that the fight against racism is far from over. The legacy of traveling while black extends beyond the Jim Crow era.  Black travelers still face serious and potentially deadly forms of racism today. Racial profiling and traffic stops have made driving a particularly dangerous experience for people of color. Recent events, such as the police killing of unarmed motorist Duante Wright in Minnesota, highlight the urgent need for police reform.

The United States has ever been a land of unrestricted travel and freedom for all. The experiences of Black Americans navigating the American landscape are deeply shaped by their race, even today. While significant progress has been made, the struggles persist. Discriminatory practices, racial profiling, and instances of police violence against black travelers continue to be reported. The phrase “driving while black” has become emblematic of the heightened risk and vulnerability black individuals face during traffic stops. Racial barriers and prejudices still shape the experiences of black Americans as they navigate the American landscape.  Recognizing this reality is crucial for fostering a more inclusive and equitable society.

Resources

https://www.washingtonpost.com/travel/2023/02/16/great-migration-african-americans/

https://penntoday.upenn.edu/news/traveling-black-book-mia-bay

https://www.nytimes.com/2019/01/25/opinion/green-book-black-travel.html

https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/freedom-riders-freedom-travel/

https://nmaahc.si.edu/explore/stories/traveling-through-jim-crow-america

https://www.caranddriver.com/features/a36213073/mia-bay-traveling-black/

https://americanhistory.si.edu/blog/negro-motorists-green-book

https://digitalcollections.nypl.org/collections/the-green-book#/?tab=about

https://mappingthegreenbook.tumblr.com/about

https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=129885990

Books

Mia Bay, "Traveling Black: A Story of Race and Resistance,"  Harvard University Press, 2021.

Charles S Johnson, Patterns of Negro Segregation (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1948).

African American Travel and the Road to Civil Rights , Gretchen Sorin , Liveright Publishing, 2020.